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Leptospirosis in Dogs - Rat Fever

Leptospirosis is a highly infectious bacterial disease that spreads via the urine of infected dogs or rats. It can also spread to humans via contact from infected urine. The bacteria initially enter, via contact with urine, into the blood stream and travel to the animal’s organs such as the liver, kidneys, nervous system, eyes, and reproductive organs.

Puppies are commonly more susceptible than adults as their immune systems have not yet matured to be strong enough to fight it off.

Cats certainly are exposed to leptospirosis, and serologic studies indicate that infection occurs. But clinical disease is rare. No specific disease syndromes have been associatedwith leptospirosis in cats.

Causative agents

• Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae
• Leptospira canicola
• Leptospira pomona
• Leptospira gripototyphosa
• Leptospira autralis

Transmission

Infected animals pass leptospira bacteria with their urine. Via contact with infected urine or contaminated water the bacteria can enter other animals through the mouth, eyes, open wounds, and skin abrasions. Transmission can also be the result of an animal feeding on an infected organism or if the bedding is contaminated. The bacteria thrive in humid and wet environments and so animals that enter the water frequently are more prone to infection. Warm, stagnant and slow moving water is an ideal breeding area for the leptospira bacteria. Some animals may act as carriers without showing any clinical signs and so further transmission may result.

Symptoms

• High temperature
• Severe thirst
• Lethargy
• Vomiting
• Abdominal pain
• Dehydration
• Stiffness
• Jaundice
• Discharge from nose and eyes
• Frequent urination - may be followed by lack of urination
• Bloody diarrhea
• Liver failure (Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae)
• Kidney failure (Leptospira canicola)
• Death often occurs in severe cases

Diagnosis

• The diagnosis of leptospirosis may be difficult and a high proportion of infected pets may develop long-term infections.
• Blood tests and urine test can be used to give a positive diagnosis for leptospirosis.  
• Serology is the most frequently used diagnostic test for dogs.

Treatment

Severe forms of the disease are difficult to treat and can prove rapidly fatal. Primary therapy should be followed by a 2- to 4-wk course of doxycycline to eliminate organisms from the kidney and decrease shedding. (5 mg/kg twice daily)

 

• Tetracycline
• Fluoroquinolones - Ciprofloxacin
• Oral penicillin
• Administration of intravenous fluids
• If there is any liver or kidney failure then these will be treated accordingly.

Prevention

• Vaccination against leptospirosis
• Infected dogs should be kept away from healthy dogs
• Dogs should be kept away from stagnant waterways which may be the source of infection.
• Disinfection of kennels - Strong disinfectants should be applied to areas where the dog has urinated.
• Practice good hygiene including careful hand washing.

Human Disease

Cat Medication - How to give a pill

• Cat owners often face much difficulty with giving their cat a pill. Actually giving cat a pill may be a difficult process. There are some tips to make this process easier for both you and cat.
• Keeping calm is the key. Cats are sensitive to nervousness, and they may become agitated. Never try to medicate an excited or nervous cat. Therefore, you have to stay relaxed and keep a positive outlook talking  in a soothing voice to your cat.
• Confine your cat to one room, placing it on a piece of carpeting: cats may want to grip the surface until they figure out what's going on. Spend for sometime petting, talking softly.
• Offer some cat food to attract the cat's interest.
• Have a large beach towel or blanket ready and wrap your cat in a towel, with the head protruding. This protects you and secures the kitty for easier handling.
• Snuggle the cat under your left arm, firmly against your body and hold its head in your left hand by its cheekbones. Though this may be an unpleasant experience for your cat, it's the most comfortable method of giving it needed pills.
• Before administration, get the pill ready and  lubricate it with butter to make it ease in swallowing .        
•                                             
• Lodge the pill as far back on its tongue as you can.
• Quickly close its mouth and blow on its nose. The blowing will encourage it to swallow the pill.
• Stroke the chin and neck area gently, watching for signs of swallowing.
• Offer a small portion of a treat or canned food to divert the cat's attention from ejecting the pill and to ensure that the pill is indeed swallowed.
• Praise and reward the cat after the pill is administered, so the experience will be as positive as possible. Give the treat without the pill now and then, too.

Smiling Dogs

Hazardous milk powder in Sri Lanka market

A controversy has arisen with the suspicion that milk powder containing DCD aka Dicyandiamide, a hazardous agrochemical, has entered into the Sri Lankan market.

The agro chemical was identified in milk powder produced by New Zealand Dairy Company Fonterra whose flagship brand ‘Anchor’ is widely popular in Sri Lanka.

New Zealand Government investigation, according to their media, had revealed traces of soil- treatment product DCD in 371 samples, affecting mainly milk powder. Traces have also been found in one butter product and 11 cheese products.

New Zealand media also charged that the country’s government did not know where the DCD-tainted products went, although some would have been sold in New Zealand. This clearly indicates that a large amount of milk powder products containing DCD have entered into the markets where Fonterra is in operation, including Sri Lanka.

The amounts of DCD found in milk powder products are contentious. Although some reports in New Zealand say that  the levels of DCD are “safe” and mostly less than 1 part per million, some categorically assert that this poses a serious threat to the public health.

DCD is a “nitrogen inhibitor” used on pastures to reduce the harmful environmental effects of urea use and runoff from cow effluent. It was revealed that Fonterra tests discovered the tainting in September, but the public and export markets were not told until late January. However, there is no internationally agreed acceptable level for DCD in milk powder. In the wake of the revelation on DCD, Ravensdown and Balance Agri-Nutrients, one of the biggest fertilizer companies of New Zealand, withdrew the agrochemical from the market until acceptable residue levels have been internationally agreed upon.

Although ‘The Nation’ attempted to contact Leon Clement, Managing Director for Fonterra Brands in Sri Lanka,to ask about the situation with regard to Fonterra milk powder brands in Sri Lanka, he was not available to comment. However, Chairman of Pelawatte Dairy Industries (Pvt) Ltd., and Mawbima Lanka Foundation, Ariyaseela Wickramanayake claimed these tainted milk powder products may have found their way to the Sri Lankan market. Among milk powder available in the Sri Lankan market, Lakspray, Nespray, Ratthi and Anchor brands contain milk powder from New Zealand sources.

Officials of Nestle Lanka PLC earlier told The Nation that ‘the quality of powdered milk products was checked and approved by authorities of the respective countries where the items are manufactured’ (‘Milk powder brands keep mum on ingredients’ in The Nation, March 17, 2013).

Maliban milk powder is imported from Australia while Pelawatte and Highland stand in the market as local products.

Meanwhile, Trade Ministry officials, in a statement on Friday, confirmed that samples of imported milk powder would be sent abroad for testing to ascertain whether they had been contaminated with DCD. The Ministry stated that the samples had to be sent abroad as Sri Lanka did not possess the technical capabilities to conduct such tests.

The controversy over DCD found in milk powder surfaced following last week’s lead story of The Nation which revealed that milk powder manufacturers were being vague when it came to listing the ingredients in their milk products and their sources. This, as industry experts explain, points out that the milk powder market in Sri Lanka should be highly regulated by a state appointed body that has a wide mandate to rectify the loopholes of the industry which put public health at risk.

What is DCD?

DCD is a nitrile derived from guanidine. It is a dimer of cyanamide, from which it can be prepared. 2-Cyanoguanidine is a colourless solid that is soluble in water, acetone, and alcohol, but not in diethyl ether or chloroform.

It is produced by treating cyanamide with base. It is produced in soil by decomposition of cyanamide. A variety of useful compounds are produced from 2-cyanoguanidine, guanidines and melamine. It is also used as a slow fertilizer. Formerly, it was as a fuel in some explosives. It is used in the adhesive industry as a curing agent for epoxies.

Sri Lankan Market

New Zealand milk powder products available in the Sri Lankan market

• Anchor

• Lakspray

• Nespray

• Ratthi

Australian milk powder products in the Sri Lankan market

• Maliban

Local brands in the market

• Pelawatte

• Highland

The Nation      

Sunday, 24 March 2013

Leptospirosis on the rise in Sri Lanka - Rat fever

The number of Leptospirosis (commonly known as rat fever) cases island wide is on a sharp surge. With the exception of Jaffna, every district has reported a rise in the number of suspected cases. The total number of cases reported for this year is 858.

According to the Government Epidemiology Unit (EPU,) 229 cases were reported islandwide in January, rising to 262 in February and up by 105 to 367 by March 21.

At least eight districts have reported more than 50 suspected cases with Ratnapura (84), Anuradhapura (83), Kalutara (77), Kurunegala (70), Polonnaruwa (65), Colombo (54), Gampaha (50) and Matara (50) registering the highest number of reported cases. The districts with the lowest incidence of cases are  (2), Kalmunai (4), Puttalam (6) and Badulla (9). Jaffna had no reported cases, EPU sources said.

Leptospirosis, a zoonotic disease endemic in Sri Lanka is mostly found among those engaged in paddy farming. Chief Epidemiologist Dr. Paba Palihawadana told the Sunday Observer that farmers had been advised to keep their fields clean and ensure that accumulated water (following rains) is flushed to eliminate rat urine prior to cultivation and to ensure their fields are free of rat burrows.

                  

March 23 2013

            

Cameras on trains to minimize animal deaths

 A pilot project was launched last week to minimize animal deaths, especially of elephants, caused by collisions with trains at night.

The Department of Railways, with support from the private sector, has taken the initiative of installing cameras on locomotives to minimize the deaths of animals crossing rail tracks at night. The first phase of the installation of these cameras took place at the Colombo Fort Railway Station last week under the patronage of Transport Minister Kumara Welgama. The night vision cameras will detect the movements of elephants or other animals within the range of one kilometre.

Minister Welgama said depending on the success of the pilot project, the Department will install a camera network on trains running on the Northern rail track. The number of elephants dying following collisions with trains has been increasing over the past few months. Ten elephants were killed by railway accidents last year. The accidents have also caused massive damage to the locomotives, in some instances even derailing trains. Sri Lanka Railways has identified the areas between Kekirawa and Punani on the Batticaloa line, between Galoya and China Bay on the Trincomalee line and between Maho and Galgamuwa on the Anuradhapura line as most vulnerable for elephant accidents.

Milk powder brands keep mum on ingredients

Labeling laws are toothless: Regulatory bodies lack machinery to check ingredients.

In a backdrop where a controversy looms large over the US dairy industry with regard to genetically engineered growth hormones contained in milk powder , the Sri Lankan milk powder industry lacks a mechanism to ascertain the ingredients and components of the milk powder brands available in the local market.

In a survey done last week, The Nation found that most milk powder manufacturers do not disclose or display the ingredients contained in their products.

While some contained the substances, the sources of nutrients were also not specified. The officials from various milk powder companies had a standard response to the questions raised by The Nation. All of them said the products went through a number of quality checks before it was put into the market. However, none of the officials could provide a satisfactory explanation on the substances included while producing powdered milk. 

Officials at Nestle Lanka PLC told The Nation that the quality of powdered milk products were checked and approved by authorities of the respective countries from where the items are manufactured.

However, he pointed out that most of its milk products are manufactured using locally obtained milk. “Over 50% of the products are from locally produced milk. Last year, our production from locally obtained milk increased by 20%,” an official said.

Meanwhile, a senior research officer at Maliban Milk Products (Pvt) Ltd said the powdered milk products are certified and cleared by authorities in Australia, from where the company imports powdered milk. “The products go through a series of checks where they are manufactured. Our suppliers in Australia make sure that the products conform to the requirements before they are sent,” the official said.

In addition, the official added that the products are inspected by the likes of the Sri Lanka Standards Institution (SLSI) and Medical Research Institute (MRI) once the items are brought into the country. But, The Nation reliably learns that both the SLSI and MRI lack robust machinery or mechanism to ascertain ingredients and components of milkpowder.

Assistant Manager, Quality Assurance at Milco (Pvt) Limited, Nilani Alwis, said the only ingredient in their Highland milk powder packets was ‘milk’!

“There’s nothing else. We don’t add chemicals or preservatives. We use spray drying method (a method of producing dry powder from a liquid by rapidly drying with a hot gas)” she said. She added their products were ‘100% local’ and were subject to stringent quality tests. Hence, the public need not have any concerns, she stressed.

Meanwhile, Amal Wageesha, Senior Lecturer in Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, South Asian Institute of Technology and Medicine (SAITM) said that ‘Companies are bound by law to display their ingredients, even if only one ingredient such as full cream milk has been used. Most however, do use nutrients in an attempt to increase the quality. At the most, milk powder contains a maximum of 3-4 ingredients, yet manufacturers have a legal obligation to print these clearly’.

‘If the companies need to survive without having legal action taken against them, they need to tell the whole truth and disclose all ingredients,’ he added. However, during the survey, The Nation found that such labeling laws are being murdered in broad daylight by milk powder manufacturers.

Chairman of Pelawatte Dairy Industries (Pvt) Ltd, and Maubima Lanka Foundation, Ariyaseela Wickramanayake claimed that DCD (Dicyandiamide) Chemicals have been found in imported milk powder.  ‘Before that, there was the Melamine scandal in China that killed several children and led to the execution of those responsible following trials,’ he added.  Wickramanayake further claimed that foreign sub-grade milk is dumped in Sri Lanka to the tune of 83, 000 tons (in 2011).

rBGH, the hormone which is at the centre of controversy, is injected into cows to increase milk production. While approved by the FDA, the hormone is banned in Canada and the European Union because of health risks to cows. Consumer advocates also say rBGH increases levels of IGF-1, a hormone that’ is linked to prostate and colon cancer.

By  The Nation      Sunday, 17 March 2013 02:29        

Bathalaya - Stout Puppy

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Causes of Infertility in Cows & Buffaloes

Infertility in cattle accounts for major economic losses in dairy farming and dairy industry. It becomes an economical burden to the farmers, since an unproductive animal has to be maintained, and in most countries such animals are driven to slaughterhouses.

Infertility describes as a temporary disturbance of reproductive function in which cows or buffaloes fail to conceive and give birth to young ones.  A healthy cow can normally produce a calf for every 12-14 months interval.

Also a cow should come to estrus within 90 days after calving otherwise the calving interval is prolonged. Infertility can be due to malnutrition, infections, congenital defects, and ovulatory or hormonal imbalances. Infertility is also due to poor management of calves resulting in delayed puberty and first calving. Therefore good management practices should be adopted right from the calf hood.

Sterility is a total loss of fertility and maintaining such animals is a waste and should be culled. Whereas infertility is a temporary loss of fertility can be corrected if diagnosed in the right time.  

The incidence of infertility is more in buffaloes due to their seasonal way of breeding and poor regulatory system of body temperature. Buffaloes require special management skills to prevent infertility.

The causes of infertility are many and can be complex.

Diseases of the genital organs

• Salpingitis
• Hydrosalpinx
• Pyosalpinx
• Endometritis
• Pyometra
• Retained placenta

Infectious causes of infertility

• Trichomoniasis
• Brucellosis
• Vibriosis
• Leptospirosis

Physiological causes of infertility

• Anoestrus
• Repeat breeding
• Cystic ovaries
• Silent heat

Anatomical causes of infertility

• Fremartinism
• Hypoplasia of the ovaries and uterus or infantile genitalia
• Diseases of the genital organs

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Safety of Drugs on Pregnancy in Dogs & Cats

A: Probably safe.  Although specific studies may not have proved the safety of all drugs in dogs and cats, there are no reports of adverse effects in laboratory animals or in women.

B: Safe for use if used cautiously.  Studies in laboratory animals may have uncovered some risk, but these drugs appear to be safe in dogs and cats or these drugs are safe if they are not administered when the animal is near term.

C: These drugs may have potential risks.  Studies in people or laboratory animals have uncovered risks, and these drugs should be used cautiously, as a last resort when the benefit of therapy clearly outweighs the risks.

D: Contraindicated.  These drugs have been shown to cause congenital malformations or embryotoxicity.

Drug	Recommendation	Comments
Antimicrobial Drugs
Amikacin	C	Aminoglycoside antibiotics easily cross the placenta and may cause 8th nerve toxicity or nephrotoxicity.
Ampicillin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Amoxicillin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Carbenicillin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Cephalosporins	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Chloramphenicol	C	May decrease protein synthesis in fetus, particularly in bone marrow.
Ciprofloxacin	D	Do not use during pregnancy, quinolones have been associated with articular cartilage defects.
Clavulanic acid-amoxicillin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Clindamycin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus
Cloxacillin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Dicloxacillin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Doxycycline	D	Tetracyclines can cause bone and teeth malformation in fetus and may cause toxicity in   mother.
Enrofloxacin	D	See ciprofloxacin.
Erythromycin	A	Appears to be safe except for erythromycin estolate, which has been shown to increase the risk of hepatotoxicity in women.
Gentamicin	C	Aminoglycoside antibiotics easily cross the placenta and may cause 8th nerve toxicity or nephrotoxicity. However, specific toxicities from gentamicin have not been reported, and it may be used for a serious infection in place of a suitable alternative.
Hetacillin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Kanamycin	C	Aminoglycoside antibiotics easily cross the placenta and may cause 8th nerve toxcitity or nephrotoxcitity.
Lincomycin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to cause problems in fetus.
Metronidazole	C	Teratogenic in laboaratory animals, but there is no information for dogs and cats.  It should be avoided during the first three weeks of pregnancy.
Neomycin	A	Not absorbed sufficiently to cause systemic effects after oral administration.
Oxacillin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Oxytetracycline	D	Toxic to fetus and may increase risk of hepatitis in mother.
Penicillin G (benzyl penicillin)	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Streptomycin	D	Associated with higher incidence of 8th nerve toxicity than other aminoglycosides. See gentamicin.
Sulfonamides	B	Sulfonamides cross the placenta and have produced congenital mal-formations in rats and mice, but problems have not been reported in dogs or cats; in people, they have caused neonatal icterus when administered near term.  Avoid long-acting sulfonamides.
Tetracycline	D	Tetracyclines can cause bone and teeth malformations in fetus and may cause toxicity in mother.
Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine	B	Manufacturer states that it is safe during pregnancy in dogs.
Trimethoprim	B	Teratogenic in rats but probably safe in other species.  Folate antagonism and bone marrow depression are possible with prolonged use.
Ticarcillin	A	Crosses the placenta but has not been shown to be harmful to fetus.
Tobramycin	C	Aminoglycoside antibiotics easily cross the placenta and may cause 8th nerve toxicity or nephrotoxicity.
Tylonin	B	No information is available.
Antifungal Drugs
Amphotericin-B	C	There are no known teratogenic effects, but amphotericin is extremely toxic.  Use only if the disease is life threatening, in absence of a suitable alternative.
Griseofulvin	D	Teratogenic in rats; causes multiple skeletal & brain malformations in cats.
Ketoconazole	B	Teratogenic & embryotoxic in rats; antiandrogenic; stillbirths have been reported in dogs.
Miconazole	A	Apparently safe if applied topically.
Antiparasitic Drugs
Amitraz	C	Manufacturer states that reproduction studies have not been done; no information available.
Diethyl carbamazine	A	Manufacturer states that the drug may be given to dogs throughout gestation.
Dithiazanine iodide	B	No information is available; iodide salts may cause congenital goiter if administered for prolonged periods during pregnancy.
Fenbendazole	A	Safe.  Has been administered to pregnant bitches without producing adverse effects.
Dichlorvos	B	Caution is advised when administering cholinesterase inhibitors to pregnant animals, it should not be administered to puppies or kittens, but studies in pregnant dogs and cats suggest that there are not adverse effects during pregnancy.
Ivermectin	A	Safe.  Reproduction studies in dogs, cattle, horses, and pigs have not shown adverse effects.
Levamisole	C	No information available.
Mebendazole	A	Safe.  In reproduction studies in dogs, it was not teratogenic or embryotoxic.
Piperazine	A	Safe.  No known contraindications for the use of piperazine.
Praziquantel	A	Safe.  No adverse effects were seen when tested in pregnant dogs and cats.
Thiacetarsamide (Caparsolate sodium)		No specific information regarding toxicity to fetus is available.  It can be hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic, and heartworm adulticide should be postponed until after parturition.
Bunamidine	A	Has been administered to pregnant bitches without problems and is safe in pregnant cats.  Slight interference with spermatogenesis has been seen in male dogs.
Pyrantel	A	Safe.  Toxicity studies have not shown any adverse effects.
Thenium	A	Safe.  Manufacturer states that except in young puppies, there are no known contraindications.
Thiabendazole	B	Thiabendazole is not teratogenic in laboratory animals, but high doses have produced toxemia in ewes.
Trichlorfon	C	Caution is advised when administering organophosphates to pregnant animals.  Congenital toxicoses have been reported following administration to pregnant sows.  Manufacturer states that trichlorfon should not be administered to pregnant mares, but there are no recommendations for dogs and cats.
Anticancer Drugs
Doxorubicin hydrochloride	C	May produce malformations in newborn or embryotoxicity.
Azathioprine	C	May produce congenital malformations but has been used in pregnant women safely.  It may be a suitable alternative to other drugs when immunosuppressive therapy is required.
Chlorambucil	C	May produce malformations in newborn or embryotoxicity.
Cisplatin	C	May produce congenital malformations, embryotoxicity, or nephrotoxicity.
Cyclophosphamide	C	May produce malformations in newborn or embryotoxicity.
Methotrexate	C	May produce malformations in newborn or embryotoxicity.
Vincristine	C	May produce malformations in newborn or embryotoxicity.
Analgesic Drugs
Acetaminophen	C	Safety not established in dogs, toxic in cats.
Aspirin	C	Embryotoxicity has been seen in laboratory animals but not in other species.  Late in pregnancy it may produce         pulmonary hypertension and bleeding problems.
Flunixin meglumine	C	Safety in pregnancy has not been determined.
Gold (aurothioglucose)	D	Laboratory animal studies clearly show increased congenital mal- formations.
Ibuprofen	C	Safety in dogs and cats not established.
Indomethacin	C	Can be toxic in adult dogs; can cause premature closure of ductus arteriosus if administered near term.
Phenylbutazone	C	Safety has not been established.  Long-term use can depress bone marrow.
Salicylates	C	Embryotoxicity has been seen in laboratory animals but not                 in other species.  Late in pregnancy, it may produce         pulmonary hypertension and bleeding disorders.
Anesthetic and Pre-anesthetic Drugs
Acepromazine	B	Phenothiazines should be avoided near term, they may produce neonatal CNS depression.
Atropine	B	Crosses the placenta and has been used safely but may cause fetal tachycardia.
Butorphanol	B	Safe for short-term use.  Neonatal depression can be treated with naloxone.
Codeine	B	Safe for short-term use.  Neonatal depression can be treated with naloxone.
Diazepam	C	See anticonvulsants.
Fentanyl	B	Safe for short-term use.  Neonatal depression can be treated with naloxone.
Glycopyrrolate	B	Safe.  Does not cross placenta as readily as atropine.  Studies in rats and rabbits have not revealed teratogenic effects.
Halothane	C	Decreased learning ability has been reported in rats after in utero exposure; depression may be seen in neonates after cesarean section; excessive uterine bleeding may be seen when administered during cesarean section.
Isoflurane	B	Probably safe.  Depression may be seen in neonates after cesarean section.
Ketarnine	B	Probably safe.  Depression may be seen in puppies delivered by cesarean section, may increase intrauterine pressure and induce premature labor.
Lidocaine	A	All local anesthetics appear to be safe when used for a local nerve block or epidural anesthesia.
Meperidine	B	Opiates can produce neonatal sedation and respiratory depression, but the effects can be reversed with the administration of naloxone.
Methoxyflurane	C	Neonatal depression is seen when used for cesarean section.
Morphine	B	Opiates can produce neonatal sedation and respiratory depression, but the effects can be reversed with the administration of naloxone.
Naloxone	A	Has been shown to be safe when administered to newborns within a few minutes after birth.
Nitrous oxide	B	Probably safe. Used frequently for cesarean section without adverse effects.
Oxymorphone	B	Opiates can produce neonatal sedation and respiratory depression, but the effects can be reversed with the administration of naloxone.
Pentobarbital	D	Associated with high incidence of neonatal mortality.
Thiamylal	C	Easily crosses the placenta; all barbiturates produce respiratory depression in fetus, however, thiobarbiturates are not as toxic as pentobarbital.
Thiopental	C	Easily crosses the placenta. All barbiturates produce respiratory depression in fetus; however, thiobarbiturates are not as toxic as pentobarbital.
Gastrointestinal Drugs
Antacids	A	Safe.  Not absorbed systemically.
Antiemetics	B	Probably safe if administered short term.
Cimetidine	B	Safety has not been established, but no reports of toxicity in humans.
Dimenhydrinate	B	Safe if used short term.
Diphenhydramine	B	Safe if used short term.
Diphenoxylate	C	Studies have reported adverse effects in laboratory animals, but no adverse effects have been reported in pregnant dogs, cats, and humans.
Laxatives	B	All laxatives, except Castor Oil are considered safe if they are used short term.  Castor Oil causes premature  uterine contractions.
Loperamide	C	Same comment as diphenoxylate.
Metoclopramide	B	Safe in laboratory animals, but no studies available for cats or dogs.
Methscopolamine	C	Safety not established.
Misoprostol	D	Synthetic prostaglandin, causes a termination of pregnancy.
Prochlorperazine	B	No reports of toxicity when administered short term.
Ranitidine	B	Safety has not been established, but no reports of toxicity were reported in humans.
Sucralfate	A	Probably safe.  Not absorbed systemically.
Sulfasalazine	B	Salicylate component is not absorbed enough to produce adverse effects; sulfonamide may produce neonatal icterus when used near term.
Cardiovascular Drugs
Atropine	B	Probably safe but may produce fetal tachycardia.
Captopril	C	Has been shown to be embryotoxic in laboratory animals and goats.
Digitalis	A	Probably safe.  No adverse effects seen in humans and laboratory animals.
Furosemide	B	No adverse effects have been reported.
Dopamine	B	Probably safe at therapeutic doses.
Heparin	B	Does not appear to cross placenta.
Hydralazine	B	Probably safe.  There have been reports of minor toxicity in rats, but it has been administered safely to pregnant women.
Isoproterenol	C	May cause fetal tachycardia; beta-adrenergic drugs inhibit uterine contractions.
Lidocaine	B	Probably safe.  May cause fetal bradycardia.
Nitroglycerin	C	No information available.
Nitroprusside	C	There is a risk of fetal cyanide toxicity with prolonged use.
Procainamide	B	Probably safe.  May cause fetal bradycardia.
Propranolol	C	May cause fetal bradycardia, respiratory depression, and neonatal hypoglycemia; avoid use near term.
Quinidine	B	Probably safe.  May cause fetal bradycardia.
Theophylline	B	No reports of adverse effects.
Thiazide diuretics	C	May cause increased incidence of perinatal mortality.
Warfarin	D	Causes embryotoxicity and congenital malformations, neural tube defects in laboratory animals and humans.
Anticonvulsant Drugs
Diazepam	C	Has been associated with congenital defects in mice, rats, and people.
Phenobarbital	B	Has been associated with rare congenital defects and bleeding tendencies in newborn but may be safer than other anticonvulsants
Phenytoin	C	Teratogenic in rats, mice, and people.
Primidone	C	Same risks as phenobarbital and has been associated with increased incidence of hepatitis in adult dogs.
Valproic acid	C	May cause congenital malformations.
Muscle Relaxants
Dantrolene	C	Safety not established.
Dimethyl tubocurarine	B	Quarternary base with negligible placental transfer, it does not affect the fetus unless administered in large doses.
Gallamine	B	Quarternary base with negligible placental transfer, it does not affect the fetus unless administered in large doses.
Methocarbamol	C	Safety not established, manufacturer states that it should not be administered during pregnancy.